Fall of the Roman Republic:
Myths and theories
Following Sulla a decade of aristocratic control with unsuccessful challenge by Q. Aemilius Lepidus (cos. 78). Conflict in the East leads to a big aggrandizement of Roman territory under Pompey and Lucullus in 70s and 60s. But after defeating Spartacus, Crassus and Pompey serve as consuls together in 70 and undo Sulla’s cap on the tribunate.
The 60s see Cicero’s rise to the consulship in 63 (in suo anno) and his discovery of a revolutionary plot to overthrow the Republic. Cicero foils Catiline and is proclaimed pater patriae, but his life goal of a harmony of the orders never gains fruition and his own head is put at risk for the execution of citizens w/o trial. Cicero went into exile in 58, though recalled. Simultaneously, Julius starts his rise and wins popularity as aedile and military glory as praetor. In either 60 or 59 he forms First Triumvirate with P & Cr and gives his daughter Julia to Pompey in marriage.
The early 50s
Julius acquires the consulship in 59 (in suo anno) and proposes a vast legislative reform program, partly blocked by the Bibulus and the Old Guard, consulship of Julius and Caesar. To avoid prosecution Julius rigs a province for himself so he can enjoy immunity. This governorship is extended to 5 years and the Senate gives him two more provinces to keep him busy. Friendly consuls elected for 58 and 57 to help protect interests of FT. But hostile forces nearly break up P & Cr until Julius renews the FT at Lucca in 56 and P&C win election for second joint consulship in 55, defeating Cato’s bro-in-law LDA.
The conquest of Gaul matched with 2 invasions of Britain (Comm. De Bel Gal).
The late 50s
P & C renew J’s governorships for 5 years; give selves provinces of Spain and Syria. LDA gets consulship of 54 with the optimatis App. Claudius Pulcher, but has limited success against FT until the exit of Cr. Cr launches illegal war on Parthia in Carrhae disaster in 53, loses his son, his pride, his life. Popular but inaccurate view: Crassus was glue that held FT together, w/o him it broke.
53/52 represents a dramatic change in politics:
1. Cr’s wealth no longer a factor in elections
2. LDA now able to elect some anti-FT consulars: App CP, MVMR (53), and 51-49.
3. Cr’s daughter-in-law Cornelia ultimately weds P and drags him away from J.
4. Coalition of Cato, QCMPS, LDA, Claudii tighten ranks against J
5. Unpredictable conduct of tribune Scribonius Curio
Civil disruption prevents peaceful election for 53, but LDC and MVMR eventually seated as consuls in Feb.
52 all hell breaks loose. The consuls designate are convicted of bribery and lose their seats (L. Plautius Hypsaeus and T Annius Milo). Murder of Clodius by Milo (battle of Bodivilla) followed by a funeral at which the Curia set on fire. At end the optimates agree to give P a sole consulship and he adds his father-in-law QCMPS as a colleague half way through. Milo tried and exiled, despite Cicero.
Efforts in 51 to recall J fail, since P still defends his ally.
Efforts in 50 renewed with more success because P forced to commit himself in a slip.
49 J recalled (illegally) and LDA appointed to succeed him. J crosses Rubicon and makes war on Senate.
The Civil War:
Julius storms Italy in Jan 49 and the Senate first appoints P as CEO, then flees Rome (Napoleon condemns this). J captures LDA at Corfinum, releases him, takes R, chases P to Brundisium , but P escapes. After securing Italy, J turns W to conquer Spain. A largely bloodless victory in which he starves Afranius into surrender.
48 J consul II with PSV, food shortage in Italy caused by the Republicans, J invades Greece and nearly loses all at Dyrrhachium, but wins Pharsalus. LDA executed. P flees to Egypt and is slain (Vergil on the headless trunk of Priam). J follows to Egypt, meets Cleopatra, Alexandrine War.
47 Q Fufius Calenus and Vatinius consuls, J wins Zela (I came, I saw, I conquered) and returns to Italy. Prepares for war in Africa vs Cato.
46 Julius III, Lepidus consuls, invasion of Africa and close call at Thapsus. Cato suicide, QCMPS flees, drowns. J returns to Italy.
45 Julius IV, QFM consuls, Sons of Pompey raise an army in Spain, Munda. J holds a triple triumph over Africa (Juba), Spain (from 60), Pharnaces – but angers many. Caninius Rebillus a one-day consul.
44 Julius V M Antony, J made dictator perpatuus in Feb, assassinated on 3/15.
Theories:
1. Competitive system doomed to create warlords and one-man rule
2. Death of Crassus doomed a confrontation
3. Death of Julia doomed a confrontation
4. System collapsed due to an unpredictable set of personalities
5. Many conflicts in play: Italian vs Roman, Optimate vs Popularis, debtors vs creditors, provincials vs peninsulares, wealth as a changing factor
6. Civil War really a temporary aberration, just as was Marius, Sulla, but Antony and Caesar Octavian followed instead of Republicans.
The consuls and partisanship:
Bold = pro-J,P Italics = anti underline is ambiguous
60 Pupius Piso, M. Val. Messalla Niger
59 Julius, M Calpurnius Bibulus
58 L. Calp Piso, A Gabinius
57 Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, Q Caecilius Metellus Nepos
56 L Marcius Philippus, Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus
55 Cr II and P II
54 App. Claudius Pulcher, L. Domitius Ahenobarbus
53 Domitius Calvinus, M Val Messalla Rufus
52 (Milo and Plautius Hypsaeus) Pompey III, QCMPS
51 P Sulpicius Rufus, M. Claudius Marcellus
50 L. Aemilius Paullus, C. Claudius Marcellus
49 C Claudius Marcellus, L.Cornelius Lentulus Crus
48 J II, P Sevilisu Vatia Isauricus
Tuesday, November 20, 2007
Gaius Valerius Catullus
Gaius Valerius Catullus (84-54) was an eques in some distant way attached to the powerful Valerii gens. Although his father was a friend of Julius, the young Catullus attacked him in his poems until reconciled at a dinner party. Catullus sought political advancement and went away to Bithynia on the staff of Memmius, but soured on politics for good after that experience. He is most famous for his affair with an older, married woman, whom he gave the pseudonym Lesbia (after Sappho, whose poetry Catullus imitated). The affair ended disastrously and Catullus wrote several angry poems about her to make himself feel better.
2
Sparrow, the favorite of my girlfriend,
With which she regularly plays, and holds between her thighs,
Whom she teases with her forefinger
And sometimes startles with sharp bites
When I desire something else.
I do not know why she likes to try
To please by giving pain.
I believe one day her heavy passion will yield:
If so, then I could play with you like her,
And lighten the sad worries of your mind!
11
Furius and Aurelius, comrades of Catullus,
Whether he shall enter far-off India,
Where the long drawn beat of the Indian Ocean
beats upon the shore,
Or whether he lands among the Hyrcani or soft Arabs,
Or the Sagae or the arrow-bearing Parthians,
Or where the seven-tongued Nile colors the waters,
Whether he goes across the high Alps,
Seeing the monuments of great Caesar:
The Gallic Rhine, the horrible see, or the far-off Brittons,
All things, wherever the will of the gods takes him,
You are ready to risk all with him at once,
Take this message to my ex –
and they are not nice words.
Let her live and fare well with her adulterers,
300 strong, whom she holds, all at the same time in an embrace,
Not really loving any of them, but breaking every
single one of them;
Nor will she regain my love, as before,
Which by her fault was cut down, just like the last flower
On a meadow, when a silent plow cut it
As it went by.
49 Some scholars think Catullus sent this poem after Cicero delivered the Pro Caelio, in which he accused Clodia and her brother of incest, to defend Caelius of charges of attempted poisoning. Cicero got Caelius off, and earned the hatred of Clodia. A better interpretation should be proposed.
Silver tongued among the sons of Romulus,
Those who live, those who died, and those who will be
in years to come,
Marcus Tullius, to you Catullus sends deepest thanks,
The worst poet of all, by as much the worst poet of all,
As you are the best lawyer of all.
101
Through many nations and over many seas
I have come to bring you, my brother, these sad offerings,
That I might bring you this sad memorial and in vain
Pay silent tribute to your ashes.
When Fortune took you from me, alas too soon,
Sad brother, wrongfully taken from me,
Nevertheless, now meanwhile, this sad duty is mine
To perform in the ancient rite of our ancestors, to your memory,
Accept this too late heartfelt brotherly grief,
And for all time, hello and farewell.
M. Valerius Martialis was descended from someone who had received Roman citizenship (probably from a M. Valerius Messalla). He came from Spain to Rome ca. AD 65 and tried to get in with Roman upper society. He became friends with Juvenal, Pliny the Younger, and others, achieving some social success under Domitian. His Epigrams show that he interacted with all levels of society, and particularly that he did not like miserly patrons who ill-treated their dependents.
1.47
Recently Diaulus was a doctor, now he is a mortician,
And that pretty well explains how he got most of his clients.
5.74
Asia and Europe cover the sons of Pompey, but he himself –
If any Earth covers him, it is Africa.
Can any Earth cover so great a man? No one tomb
Would be big enough to fit so great a downfall.
6.66
Gellianus the auctioneer was trying to sell
A girl whose reputation sits not well,
To those who live in the Subura slums,
For a long time people only bid small sums.
When he wished to persuade all that she was pure,
He dragged her against her will by the hand close to him,
And two, three, and four times kissed her.
What do you ask resulted from his kisses?
The guy who offered six bucks withdrew his bid.
9.4 Prostitution was not illegal or any more sordid than being a garbage collector, but it was dirty work that brought one into contact with lowlifes.
Galla can screw anyway you want for two gold coins,
And more than screw if you add two more.
Why are you paying her ten, Aeschylus?
Galla will suck you for less than that. You do it so she won’t tell.
9.68 Roman schools began at about 6am and lasted until about 1pm. All schools were private, so only those who could afford it got an education. More boys than girls went to school – probably from the age of 7-12.
Wicked schoolmaster, why is he always with us like some unseen ogre?
The crested roosters have not yet broken the silent dawn,
And already you growl with menacing tones.
It’s like bronze ringing with hammer strokes
When a sculptor makes an equestrian statue for a lawyer.
More noisy than a shout rising in a great amphitheater,
For the winning gladiator from his fans.
We ask for some quiet on our block, not all night,
For a little noise is allright,
But to get no sleep is awful. Send home your students.
Will you agree, Mr. Loudmouth, to take as much money
For shutting up as you do for teaching?
12.93 My younger brother’s 2nd favorite Epigram. Romans liked to keep dwarves as pets or servants. In fact the exotic was very fascinating for them.
In this way she can kiss her adulterous lover
When her husband is there, that wily Labulla.
She kisses her pigmy servant over and over,
Then he takes hold of him with many more kisses,
And after the adulterer slobbers all over him,
Laughing, he sends him back to the mistress.
The husband is made a greater fool than the dwarf!
2
Sparrow, the favorite of my girlfriend,
With which she regularly plays, and holds between her thighs,
Whom she teases with her forefinger
And sometimes startles with sharp bites
When I desire something else.
I do not know why she likes to try
To please by giving pain.
I believe one day her heavy passion will yield:
If so, then I could play with you like her,
And lighten the sad worries of your mind!
11
Furius and Aurelius, comrades of Catullus,
Whether he shall enter far-off India,
Where the long drawn beat of the Indian Ocean
beats upon the shore,
Or whether he lands among the Hyrcani or soft Arabs,
Or the Sagae or the arrow-bearing Parthians,
Or where the seven-tongued Nile colors the waters,
Whether he goes across the high Alps,
Seeing the monuments of great Caesar:
The Gallic Rhine, the horrible see, or the far-off Brittons,
All things, wherever the will of the gods takes him,
You are ready to risk all with him at once,
Take this message to my ex –
and they are not nice words.
Let her live and fare well with her adulterers,
300 strong, whom she holds, all at the same time in an embrace,
Not really loving any of them, but breaking every
single one of them;
Nor will she regain my love, as before,
Which by her fault was cut down, just like the last flower
On a meadow, when a silent plow cut it
As it went by.
49 Some scholars think Catullus sent this poem after Cicero delivered the Pro Caelio, in which he accused Clodia and her brother of incest, to defend Caelius of charges of attempted poisoning. Cicero got Caelius off, and earned the hatred of Clodia. A better interpretation should be proposed.
Silver tongued among the sons of Romulus,
Those who live, those who died, and those who will be
in years to come,
Marcus Tullius, to you Catullus sends deepest thanks,
The worst poet of all, by as much the worst poet of all,
As you are the best lawyer of all.
101
Through many nations and over many seas
I have come to bring you, my brother, these sad offerings,
That I might bring you this sad memorial and in vain
Pay silent tribute to your ashes.
When Fortune took you from me, alas too soon,
Sad brother, wrongfully taken from me,
Nevertheless, now meanwhile, this sad duty is mine
To perform in the ancient rite of our ancestors, to your memory,
Accept this too late heartfelt brotherly grief,
And for all time, hello and farewell.
M. Valerius Martialis was descended from someone who had received Roman citizenship (probably from a M. Valerius Messalla). He came from Spain to Rome ca. AD 65 and tried to get in with Roman upper society. He became friends with Juvenal, Pliny the Younger, and others, achieving some social success under Domitian. His Epigrams show that he interacted with all levels of society, and particularly that he did not like miserly patrons who ill-treated their dependents.
1.47
Recently Diaulus was a doctor, now he is a mortician,
And that pretty well explains how he got most of his clients.
5.74
Asia and Europe cover the sons of Pompey, but he himself –
If any Earth covers him, it is Africa.
Can any Earth cover so great a man? No one tomb
Would be big enough to fit so great a downfall.
6.66
Gellianus the auctioneer was trying to sell
A girl whose reputation sits not well,
To those who live in the Subura slums,
For a long time people only bid small sums.
When he wished to persuade all that she was pure,
He dragged her against her will by the hand close to him,
And two, three, and four times kissed her.
What do you ask resulted from his kisses?
The guy who offered six bucks withdrew his bid.
9.4 Prostitution was not illegal or any more sordid than being a garbage collector, but it was dirty work that brought one into contact with lowlifes.
Galla can screw anyway you want for two gold coins,
And more than screw if you add two more.
Why are you paying her ten, Aeschylus?
Galla will suck you for less than that. You do it so she won’t tell.
9.68 Roman schools began at about 6am and lasted until about 1pm. All schools were private, so only those who could afford it got an education. More boys than girls went to school – probably from the age of 7-12.
Wicked schoolmaster, why is he always with us like some unseen ogre?
The crested roosters have not yet broken the silent dawn,
And already you growl with menacing tones.
It’s like bronze ringing with hammer strokes
When a sculptor makes an equestrian statue for a lawyer.
More noisy than a shout rising in a great amphitheater,
For the winning gladiator from his fans.
We ask for some quiet on our block, not all night,
For a little noise is allright,
But to get no sleep is awful. Send home your students.
Will you agree, Mr. Loudmouth, to take as much money
For shutting up as you do for teaching?
12.93 My younger brother’s 2nd favorite Epigram. Romans liked to keep dwarves as pets or servants. In fact the exotic was very fascinating for them.
In this way she can kiss her adulterous lover
When her husband is there, that wily Labulla.
She kisses her pigmy servant over and over,
Then he takes hold of him with many more kisses,
And after the adulterer slobbers all over him,
Laughing, he sends him back to the mistress.
The husband is made a greater fool than the dwarf!
Wednesday, November 7, 2007
Paper Topics for Roman History
Paper Topics for Roman History
• Use standard, formal English (no slang, no contractions)
• Write a good thesis paragraph and prove your thesis
• Only quote primary sources (Greek or Roman authors)
• Use the guidelines in back of course reader
1. Watch A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (twice) and then mine Plautus plays for the inspiration matter for Gelbart et al. What is the next greatest influence on FTHoWtF after Pseudolous? Read through a number of Plautus & Terrence plays to find which plays provided material and where source material was common to multiple sources.
2. Compare the biographies of Julius by Plutarch and Suetonius. Find at least four places where they differ or one completely omits a story told by another. Which one do other sources back? Why would the two authors have different interpretations for the same event?
3. After reading Suetonius and Plutarch biographies, read a few of the short biographies by Cornelius Nepos. Then compose your own biography of a Roman figure who is not already the source of a biography. (Make sure you do not make any factual errors, which is a frequent problem with wikipedia.com).
4. Watch the whole HBO Rome series and write a critical analysis of five places where HBO made a historical mistake not as a plot enhancer, but as a simple (correctable) mistake. The characterization of the politically diabolical Atia intentionally departs from history for character development, just as is Titus Pullo’s impregnation of Cleopatra. Your task is to find errors that could have been corrected without changing the plot.
5. When Romans conquered a new region and decided to occupy it, what was the process of Romanization they enacted? How did they indoctrinate the locals? A few books may help you on this – but do not quote modern authors. Atlas of the Roman World, David Potter Roman Italy, or Ina Caro The Road from the Past.
6. Numa established superstition in the guise of religion in 715 BC. How do Romans regard magic and witchcraft according to Appuleius, The Golden Ass? How did Romans handle the threat of the black arts? Do religious cults splinter their followers from mainstream religion?
7. Appuleius, The Golden Ass, is a hilarious set of stories inside stories. How does the audience read these stories? Do they make provincials look provincial, or do they express the fears and hopes of everyone? How safe is the Roman Empire at its peak? Do you get this same sense fo daily life from any other reading that survived?
8. Vergil’s Aeneid became the national epic overnight, but there are a few inconsistencies and problems never resolved in the text. Many people say Aeneas = Augustus and Turnus = Mark Antony. Evaluate this theory and express an opinion. Is Aeneas entirely admirable and a good fit for Augustus? Does Aeneas make Augustus look good or bad? And is Antony really Turnus?
9. How does Polybius differentiate Romans and Roman imperialism from other people. Scour through Polybius and find 3 or more places where he tells his audience how Rs are different because … . Analyze and explain what makes Rs distinct in his opinion. If possible express whether this supports or countermands his theory as to why Rome dominates the Mediterranean.
• Use standard, formal English (no slang, no contractions)
• Write a good thesis paragraph and prove your thesis
• Only quote primary sources (Greek or Roman authors)
• Use the guidelines in back of course reader
1. Watch A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (twice) and then mine Plautus plays for the inspiration matter for Gelbart et al. What is the next greatest influence on FTHoWtF after Pseudolous? Read through a number of Plautus & Terrence plays to find which plays provided material and where source material was common to multiple sources.
2. Compare the biographies of Julius by Plutarch and Suetonius. Find at least four places where they differ or one completely omits a story told by another. Which one do other sources back? Why would the two authors have different interpretations for the same event?
3. After reading Suetonius and Plutarch biographies, read a few of the short biographies by Cornelius Nepos. Then compose your own biography of a Roman figure who is not already the source of a biography. (Make sure you do not make any factual errors, which is a frequent problem with wikipedia.com).
4. Watch the whole HBO Rome series and write a critical analysis of five places where HBO made a historical mistake not as a plot enhancer, but as a simple (correctable) mistake. The characterization of the politically diabolical Atia intentionally departs from history for character development, just as is Titus Pullo’s impregnation of Cleopatra. Your task is to find errors that could have been corrected without changing the plot.
5. When Romans conquered a new region and decided to occupy it, what was the process of Romanization they enacted? How did they indoctrinate the locals? A few books may help you on this – but do not quote modern authors. Atlas of the Roman World, David Potter Roman Italy, or Ina Caro The Road from the Past.
6. Numa established superstition in the guise of religion in 715 BC. How do Romans regard magic and witchcraft according to Appuleius, The Golden Ass? How did Romans handle the threat of the black arts? Do religious cults splinter their followers from mainstream religion?
7. Appuleius, The Golden Ass, is a hilarious set of stories inside stories. How does the audience read these stories? Do they make provincials look provincial, or do they express the fears and hopes of everyone? How safe is the Roman Empire at its peak? Do you get this same sense fo daily life from any other reading that survived?
8. Vergil’s Aeneid became the national epic overnight, but there are a few inconsistencies and problems never resolved in the text. Many people say Aeneas = Augustus and Turnus = Mark Antony. Evaluate this theory and express an opinion. Is Aeneas entirely admirable and a good fit for Augustus? Does Aeneas make Augustus look good or bad? And is Antony really Turnus?
9. How does Polybius differentiate Romans and Roman imperialism from other people. Scour through Polybius and find 3 or more places where he tells his audience how Rs are different because … . Analyze and explain what makes Rs distinct in his opinion. If possible express whether this supports or countermands his theory as to why Rome dominates the Mediterranean.
HBO Rome episode 1 The Coming of the Civil War
HBO Rome episode 1 The Coming of the Civil War
1. (Note the calendar at end of opening credits) Why is the calendar posted publicly in Ancient Rome?
2. opening explanation What 3rd member of the triumvirate, dead in 52, has the show omitted from mention?
3. 3 minutes What battle is this supposed to be, in which Gaul falls, after which (at 5 minutes) Vercingetorix surrenders?
4. 7 minutes Pompey’s letter somehow reaches Julius only in 52 to tell him Julia died in childbirth. When did Julia really die (see Plut. Pompey 53 or Dio 39.64 or App. BC 2.19) and what really happened to the daughter (the show has it wrong)?
5. 9 minutes and later Why does Julius show so little emotion when he reads Pompey’s letter or when Antony or Brutus expresses condolences for Julia’s death?
6. 10 minutes Cato the Younger is dressed in black (mourning) prematurely in this episode. Why does he wear no tunic under his toga like the other senators do?
7. 12 minutes Ancient Romans saw nothing wrong with women enjoying sex (that is a Judeo-Christian hang-up), but HBO may try to make what statement with Atia on top?
8. 14 minutes Cato makes what dreadful historical error when he asks Pompey “why does your fellow consul Julius not return from Gaul?” P repeats the error.
9. 18 minutes What is Scipio’s full name, and why does his daughter Cornelia not like mime? Everyone else loves mime.
10. What is the relationship between Cato, Servilia, Brutus, and Caesar?
11. What was Augustus called back in 52? HBO calls him Octavian to simplify.
12. 36 minutes Why does Atia bathe in blood?
13. 37 minutes HBO pretends Octavia is married to an unknown guy named Flavius. In fact she is really married to what consular and chief high optimatis?
EpisodeII questions all info should be found in first 10-15 minutes of episode
14. Why does Atia not wish to eat with Paullo and Berranius?
15. In the fictous meeting between Marc Antony, Kato and Pompey, when exactly do the two sides claim Julius' govonorship will end?
16. A motion in the Senate mirrors a real lift bill proposed in Jan 49. On HBO Antony flees Rome after violence in the forum. What really happened?
1. (Note the calendar at end of opening credits) Why is the calendar posted publicly in Ancient Rome?
2. opening explanation What 3rd member of the triumvirate, dead in 52, has the show omitted from mention?
3. 3 minutes What battle is this supposed to be, in which Gaul falls, after which (at 5 minutes) Vercingetorix surrenders?
4. 7 minutes Pompey’s letter somehow reaches Julius only in 52 to tell him Julia died in childbirth. When did Julia really die (see Plut. Pompey 53 or Dio 39.64 or App. BC 2.19) and what really happened to the daughter (the show has it wrong)?
5. 9 minutes and later Why does Julius show so little emotion when he reads Pompey’s letter or when Antony or Brutus expresses condolences for Julia’s death?
6. 10 minutes Cato the Younger is dressed in black (mourning) prematurely in this episode. Why does he wear no tunic under his toga like the other senators do?
7. 12 minutes Ancient Romans saw nothing wrong with women enjoying sex (that is a Judeo-Christian hang-up), but HBO may try to make what statement with Atia on top?
8. 14 minutes Cato makes what dreadful historical error when he asks Pompey “why does your fellow consul Julius not return from Gaul?” P repeats the error.
9. 18 minutes What is Scipio’s full name, and why does his daughter Cornelia not like mime? Everyone else loves mime.
10. What is the relationship between Cato, Servilia, Brutus, and Caesar?
11. What was Augustus called back in 52? HBO calls him Octavian to simplify.
12. 36 minutes Why does Atia bathe in blood?
13. 37 minutes HBO pretends Octavia is married to an unknown guy named Flavius. In fact she is really married to what consular and chief high optimatis?
EpisodeII questions all info should be found in first 10-15 minutes of episode
14. Why does Atia not wish to eat with Paullo and Berranius?
15. In the fictous meeting between Marc Antony, Kato and Pompey, when exactly do the two sides claim Julius' govonorship will end?
16. A motion in the Senate mirrors a real lift bill proposed in Jan 49. On HBO Antony flees Rome after violence in the forum. What really happened?
Archaic Rome: The Monarchy
Archaic Rome: The Monarchy
1. Legendary arrival of Aeneas, 1177, standardized by Vergil (70 –
19 BC)
A. Eventually dated to seven years after the Fall of Troy.
B. Stories varied on the relation ship of Aeneas to Romulus and Remus.
C. Problems arose when a great interval of time between Troy and
Romulus
realized.
D. Solution: invent generations in between. Vergil followed example
of
others.
2. Legendary origin of family of Iulii: Iulus/Ascanius the son of
Aeneas
and Creusa (Trojan wife) who inherited high priesthood; Silvius (son by
Lavinia, Latin princess) inherited political power of Aeneas and
Latinus.
3. Romulus and Remus, b. 770 founded Rome 753
A. Date scientifically determined by Livy, counting backwards
B. R + R sons of Rhea Siliva and Mars who slay the evil Amulius and
restore grandfather Numitor.
C. They leave Alba Longa, found Rome in 753, using augury to determine
the
spot.
D. Romulus slays Remus with a spade (other stories invented so he not
be
fratricide)
E. Romulus establishes 1200 year realm, Senate of 100 patres, welcomes
refugees.
F. Rape of the Sabine Women (see Davide, Poussin)
G. Romulus a conqueror, but ignores the Senate.
H. Murdered by senators (patres) in 716.
4. Numa Pompilius r. 715-673, a Sabine
A. Cult of Janus, Temple of Janus (shut only during peace)
B. Commoners kept in superstition, fear
C. New priesthoods established, expansion or Sabine/Latin religion
5. Tullus Hostilius (672-642) – Roman - and Ancus Marcius (642-17)
- Sabine
A. duel of Horatii and Curiatii, destruction of Alba Longa
B. warlike Tullus struck by lightning.
C. Ancus like Numa, but defends Rome in war.
D. Monarchy still elective
6. The Etruscans: Tarquin I (616-579), Servius Tullius (679-535),
Tarquin II (-509)
A. Height of Etruscan power
B. Import of many Etruscan elements (fasces, toga, etc.)
7. Overthrow of the monarchy
A. Attributed to the Rape of Lucretia (Shakespeare sonnet)
B. Brutus throws off his mask of stupidity, rouses the people
C. Res Publica = commonwealth declared.
D. Tarquins try to return to power, are frustrated, ask Lars Porsenna
for
help.
E. Evidence of Lars Porsenna as king of Romans (treaty)
8. Archeology in conflict with Roman legend
A. Villanova age settlements in Rome (match to Vergil’s story of
Evander)
B. Lars Porsenna calls himself king of the Romans after the end of the
monarchy
C. Continued Etruscan presence in Rome – ca. 475.
D. NB – Roman concept of time between Aeneas – Romulus reassessed.
The Early Republic
I. The Fall of the Monarchy, birth of the Republic 510-09
1. First consuls L. Junius Brutus, L. Tarquinius Collatinus
2. Collatinus deposed, Valerius Publicola elected
3. plot to restore the Tarquins
4. battle for Rome, Brutus KIA, finally replaced by Sp. Lartius, MHP
II. War of Porsenna
1. M. Horatius Cocles
2. Cloelia
3. archeology vs legend
4. Lake Regillus 496, last monarchical attack, Castor and Pollux
5. Arrival of the Claudii under Attus Clausus, 502
III. The Etruscans in Italy
1. Origin of Etruscans – Lydia, over the Alps, indigenous?
2. Etruscan confederacy, formerly Veii a big city
3. Fasces, purple toga, gladiatorial combat
4. Women of ancient Etruria: Tannaquil
5. Deciphering the language
IV. Social unrest of Rome
1. The five secessions: 494, 449, 342, ?339, 287
2. Coriolanus, 490
3. Spurius Cassius, 486
4. Cincinnatus’ dictatorships 458, 432
5. The Decemviri, Appius Claudius, Verginia (think Lucretia) 451
V. Wars with Volsci, Fidenae, Veii,
1. Camillus and the schoolteacher
2. The Fall of Veii, 396, Camillus banished
3. Fabius the Ambassador and the Gauls
4. Allia River
5. Brennus, Vae Victis, Camillus saving the day, 387
6. legend vs. historical archeology
VI Social Unrest part 2
1. Plebeians force political equality de iure, but de facto is more
gradual
2. lex Connuleia allows patrician-plebeian marriage
3. Lex Sextia-Licinia allows plebeians be consul in 367, Sextius is
consul
in 366
4. first plebeian dictator 356
5. first plebeian censor 351
6. first plebeian praetor 337
7. lex Ogulnia opens priesthoods to plebeians
8. lex Hortensia gives plebiscita the force of law
VII. Samnite and Latin War
1. Samnium the other big Italic power in central south Italy, clash
inevitable
2. First Samnite War 343-341 short, inconclusive, battle of Vesontio.
3. Latin War arises when Rs refuse to extend full citizenship to
Latins;
Rome wins
4. Second Samnite War 327-304 – Caudine Forks
5. Appius Claudius builds Appian Way 312
6. Third Samnite War 299-291, Samnium defeated, battle of Sentinum
VIII. Exposure to Greece
1. Demaratus, father of L. Tarquin I was Corinthian
2. Etruscan affection fro Greek alphabet, vases
3. Tarquin II sneds sons to Delphi
4. Arsitodemus, son of Lars Porsenna has Greek name
5. Twelve Tables drawn by Roman ambassadors to Greece
6. Trade with Magna Graecia
7. Expansion into S. Italy ca. 280
IX. War with Pyrrhus
1. Tarrentum assaults Roman ships, R ambassador
2. Tarrentum calls in Pyrrhus for defense
3. Pyrrhus has phalanx and elephants
4. battles of Heracleia 279, Asculum 278 “Another such victory and I
am
undone!”
5. C. Fabricius Luscinus and Cineas
6. Pyrrhus abandons Italy for Sicily, 277-75
7. Battle of Beneventum, “What a battlefield I leave Rome and
Carthage!”
8. Pyrrhus abandons Italy, killed in Argos in a street fight
X. Rome and Carthage
1. First of three Punic Wars 264-41 (218-201, 149-146) “Punic”
from Poenus
2. First war around Sicily, Romans forced to create a fleet
3. Regulus episode
4. battles: Agrigentum, Mylae, Ecnomus, Adys, Bagradas, Drepanum,
Aegates Islands.
5. Hamilcar Barca
XI. Roman religion
1. Pontifex Maximus is the high priest
2. numen of divine beings
3. Three major colleges of priests: Pontifical, Augural,
Quindecimiviri
4. sacrifice to avert disaster
XII. Roman marriage and betrothal
1. conferreatio vs. cunnubio
2. common-law marriage
3. marriage for love vs arranged marriage a social inverted benefit
4. betrothals are made to be broken
XIII. Slavery
1. ubiquitous in Ancient World
2. based on conquest, not skin color
3. fuel for the Roman economy and caused imperialism (?)
4. 1/3 slaves set free and enfranchised
5. Plato, Aristotle on free souls, servile souls
XIV. Creation of Roman literature
1. Fabius Pictor, a POW during 2PW
2. Ennius, epic-like work of Punica, Naevius also.
3. Plautus comedies – slapstick, mistaken identity, randy old man
gets
comeuppance
1. Legendary arrival of Aeneas, 1177, standardized by Vergil (70 –
19 BC)
A. Eventually dated to seven years after the Fall of Troy.
B. Stories varied on the relation ship of Aeneas to Romulus and Remus.
C. Problems arose when a great interval of time between Troy and
Romulus
realized.
D. Solution: invent generations in between. Vergil followed example
of
others.
2. Legendary origin of family of Iulii: Iulus/Ascanius the son of
Aeneas
and Creusa (Trojan wife) who inherited high priesthood; Silvius (son by
Lavinia, Latin princess) inherited political power of Aeneas and
Latinus.
3. Romulus and Remus, b. 770 founded Rome 753
A. Date scientifically determined by Livy, counting backwards
B. R + R sons of Rhea Siliva and Mars who slay the evil Amulius and
restore grandfather Numitor.
C. They leave Alba Longa, found Rome in 753, using augury to determine
the
spot.
D. Romulus slays Remus with a spade (other stories invented so he not
be
fratricide)
E. Romulus establishes 1200 year realm, Senate of 100 patres, welcomes
refugees.
F. Rape of the Sabine Women (see Davide, Poussin)
G. Romulus a conqueror, but ignores the Senate.
H. Murdered by senators (patres) in 716.
4. Numa Pompilius r. 715-673, a Sabine
A. Cult of Janus, Temple of Janus (shut only during peace)
B. Commoners kept in superstition, fear
C. New priesthoods established, expansion or Sabine/Latin religion
5. Tullus Hostilius (672-642) – Roman - and Ancus Marcius (642-17)
- Sabine
A. duel of Horatii and Curiatii, destruction of Alba Longa
B. warlike Tullus struck by lightning.
C. Ancus like Numa, but defends Rome in war.
D. Monarchy still elective
6. The Etruscans: Tarquin I (616-579), Servius Tullius (679-535),
Tarquin II (-509)
A. Height of Etruscan power
B. Import of many Etruscan elements (fasces, toga, etc.)
7. Overthrow of the monarchy
A. Attributed to the Rape of Lucretia (Shakespeare sonnet)
B. Brutus throws off his mask of stupidity, rouses the people
C. Res Publica = commonwealth declared.
D. Tarquins try to return to power, are frustrated, ask Lars Porsenna
for
help.
E. Evidence of Lars Porsenna as king of Romans (treaty)
8. Archeology in conflict with Roman legend
A. Villanova age settlements in Rome (match to Vergil’s story of
Evander)
B. Lars Porsenna calls himself king of the Romans after the end of the
monarchy
C. Continued Etruscan presence in Rome – ca. 475.
D. NB – Roman concept of time between Aeneas – Romulus reassessed.
The Early Republic
I. The Fall of the Monarchy, birth of the Republic 510-09
1. First consuls L. Junius Brutus, L. Tarquinius Collatinus
2. Collatinus deposed, Valerius Publicola elected
3. plot to restore the Tarquins
4. battle for Rome, Brutus KIA, finally replaced by Sp. Lartius, MHP
II. War of Porsenna
1. M. Horatius Cocles
2. Cloelia
3. archeology vs legend
4. Lake Regillus 496, last monarchical attack, Castor and Pollux
5. Arrival of the Claudii under Attus Clausus, 502
III. The Etruscans in Italy
1. Origin of Etruscans – Lydia, over the Alps, indigenous?
2. Etruscan confederacy, formerly Veii a big city
3. Fasces, purple toga, gladiatorial combat
4. Women of ancient Etruria: Tannaquil
5. Deciphering the language
IV. Social unrest of Rome
1. The five secessions: 494, 449, 342, ?339, 287
2. Coriolanus, 490
3. Spurius Cassius, 486
4. Cincinnatus’ dictatorships 458, 432
5. The Decemviri, Appius Claudius, Verginia (think Lucretia) 451
V. Wars with Volsci, Fidenae, Veii,
1. Camillus and the schoolteacher
2. The Fall of Veii, 396, Camillus banished
3. Fabius the Ambassador and the Gauls
4. Allia River
5. Brennus, Vae Victis, Camillus saving the day, 387
6. legend vs. historical archeology
VI Social Unrest part 2
1. Plebeians force political equality de iure, but de facto is more
gradual
2. lex Connuleia allows patrician-plebeian marriage
3. Lex Sextia-Licinia allows plebeians be consul in 367, Sextius is
consul
in 366
4. first plebeian dictator 356
5. first plebeian censor 351
6. first plebeian praetor 337
7. lex Ogulnia opens priesthoods to plebeians
8. lex Hortensia gives plebiscita the force of law
VII. Samnite and Latin War
1. Samnium the other big Italic power in central south Italy, clash
inevitable
2. First Samnite War 343-341 short, inconclusive, battle of Vesontio.
3. Latin War arises when Rs refuse to extend full citizenship to
Latins;
Rome wins
4. Second Samnite War 327-304 – Caudine Forks
5. Appius Claudius builds Appian Way 312
6. Third Samnite War 299-291, Samnium defeated, battle of Sentinum
VIII. Exposure to Greece
1. Demaratus, father of L. Tarquin I was Corinthian
2. Etruscan affection fro Greek alphabet, vases
3. Tarquin II sneds sons to Delphi
4. Arsitodemus, son of Lars Porsenna has Greek name
5. Twelve Tables drawn by Roman ambassadors to Greece
6. Trade with Magna Graecia
7. Expansion into S. Italy ca. 280
IX. War with Pyrrhus
1. Tarrentum assaults Roman ships, R ambassador
2. Tarrentum calls in Pyrrhus for defense
3. Pyrrhus has phalanx and elephants
4. battles of Heracleia 279, Asculum 278 “Another such victory and I
am
undone!”
5. C. Fabricius Luscinus and Cineas
6. Pyrrhus abandons Italy for Sicily, 277-75
7. Battle of Beneventum, “What a battlefield I leave Rome and
Carthage!”
8. Pyrrhus abandons Italy, killed in Argos in a street fight
X. Rome and Carthage
1. First of three Punic Wars 264-41 (218-201, 149-146) “Punic”
from Poenus
2. First war around Sicily, Romans forced to create a fleet
3. Regulus episode
4. battles: Agrigentum, Mylae, Ecnomus, Adys, Bagradas, Drepanum,
Aegates Islands.
5. Hamilcar Barca
XI. Roman religion
1. Pontifex Maximus is the high priest
2. numen of divine beings
3. Three major colleges of priests: Pontifical, Augural,
Quindecimiviri
4. sacrifice to avert disaster
XII. Roman marriage and betrothal
1. conferreatio vs. cunnubio
2. common-law marriage
3. marriage for love vs arranged marriage a social inverted benefit
4. betrothals are made to be broken
XIII. Slavery
1. ubiquitous in Ancient World
2. based on conquest, not skin color
3. fuel for the Roman economy and caused imperialism (?)
4. 1/3 slaves set free and enfranchised
5. Plato, Aristotle on free souls, servile souls
XIV. Creation of Roman literature
1. Fabius Pictor, a POW during 2PW
2. Ennius, epic-like work of Punica, Naevius also.
3. Plautus comedies – slapstick, mistaken identity, randy old man
gets
comeuppance
Roman Literature 201
Roman Literature 201
And Roman High Schools
I. Education in the ludus
1. Typically schools taught by Greek teachers, some ex-slaves
2. Roman schoolboys escorted by the paedagogus
3. Most learning by strict memorization
4. Roman (rich) girls educated in school often as far as age 11 or 12
5. A mix of Greek and Roman authors, Homer above the rest
6. Ennius, Naevius rank with Greek tragedicians (A, S, E)
II. T. Lucretius Carus
1. Put Epicurean philosophy into Latin De Rerum Natura
2. Promotes atomic theory
3. Shuns deep emotion, especially love
4. Turned away from active involvement of gods in men’s lives
5. Legend says he committed suicide, Cicero published it posthumously
III. Decline of theater for mime
1. Plautus no longer in vogue – too long (sitcoms replace Shakespeare)
2. Terrence even less popular, too puritanical
3. Commoners like mime shows, a Roman version of satyr plays (?)
4. Theater very bawdy – as in HBO Rome
IV. Annalists vs historians
1. A few annalists (Licinius Macer, Valerias Antias, etc.) writing a fairly dry year by year account without much analysis
2. Julius’ commentaries on Gaul are almost press releases assembled as a book
3. Sallust wrote real history and earned to palm – but he writes ca. 44-30
4. Other lost writers abandon annalist school for historical analysis
V. M. Tullius Cicero
1. Often published his court case briefs
2. Very famous correspondence, published after he died
3. Turned to stoic philosophy when politically muzzled, again when Tullia died
4. Returned to politics after Ides of March with Philippics
5. Cicero sometimes wrote fictional dialogues of great Romans (On Old Age)
VI. Other fields
1. Legal: First plebeian Pontifex Maxumus Ti Coruncanius revealed legal rituals converting law from ritual to justice, long followed by Mucius Scaevola
2. Etymology: Terrentius Varro on Latin vocabulary and grammar
3. Physics: Lucretius
4. Horoscopes: Nigidius Figulus
5. Biography: Atticus
And Roman High Schools
I. Education in the ludus
1. Typically schools taught by Greek teachers, some ex-slaves
2. Roman schoolboys escorted by the paedagogus
3. Most learning by strict memorization
4. Roman (rich) girls educated in school often as far as age 11 or 12
5. A mix of Greek and Roman authors, Homer above the rest
6. Ennius, Naevius rank with Greek tragedicians (A, S, E)
II. T. Lucretius Carus
1. Put Epicurean philosophy into Latin De Rerum Natura
2. Promotes atomic theory
3. Shuns deep emotion, especially love
4. Turned away from active involvement of gods in men’s lives
5. Legend says he committed suicide, Cicero published it posthumously
III. Decline of theater for mime
1. Plautus no longer in vogue – too long (sitcoms replace Shakespeare)
2. Terrence even less popular, too puritanical
3. Commoners like mime shows, a Roman version of satyr plays (?)
4. Theater very bawdy – as in HBO Rome
IV. Annalists vs historians
1. A few annalists (Licinius Macer, Valerias Antias, etc.) writing a fairly dry year by year account without much analysis
2. Julius’ commentaries on Gaul are almost press releases assembled as a book
3. Sallust wrote real history and earned to palm – but he writes ca. 44-30
4. Other lost writers abandon annalist school for historical analysis
V. M. Tullius Cicero
1. Often published his court case briefs
2. Very famous correspondence, published after he died
3. Turned to stoic philosophy when politically muzzled, again when Tullia died
4. Returned to politics after Ides of March with Philippics
5. Cicero sometimes wrote fictional dialogues of great Romans (On Old Age)
VI. Other fields
1. Legal: First plebeian Pontifex Maxumus Ti Coruncanius revealed legal rituals converting law from ritual to justice, long followed by Mucius Scaevola
2. Etymology: Terrentius Varro on Latin vocabulary and grammar
3. Physics: Lucretius
4. Horoscopes: Nigidius Figulus
5. Biography: Atticus
The Late Republic 121-44
The Late Republic 121-44,
Post Sulla era 70s and 60s
Sulla retires and the aftermath
1. P. Servilius and App. Claudius Pulcher coss. 79 under Sulla’s eye
2. Sulla retires to the country to hunt and indulge self
3. Q. Aemilius Lepidus and – consuls in 78, a near civil war
4. Metellius Pius and Pompey sent to Spain to destroy Sertorius
5. Sertorius defeats them, but is assassinated by his lieutenant Perpenna
6. Pompey restores rule in Spain, builds ties to local towns
7. Stage set for new leaders: Pompey, Catulus, Crassus, Lucullus
I. 70s BC an era of fading few old faces - 63
1. Q. Caecilius Metellius Pius – got his father’s exile lifted, a total optimatis ally of Sulla, made Pontifex Maximus (think Pat Robertson)
2. Q. Lutatius Catulus (cos. 78) conservative, but has integrity (think John McCain)
3. App. Claudius Pulcher (cos 79) a leading elder statesmen (Dick Lugar) whose offspring would dominate the next generation
4. L. Licinius Lucullus (cos. 74) strict but first-rate commander, often overlooked by historians. Not popular, but solid, almost another Manlius Torquatus
5. Q. Hortensius (cos. 69) - best lawyer in Rome. Antonin Scalia
6. Q. Sertorius – Marian rebel who occupied Spain for a decade (Sam Houston)
II. Rising new faces
1. Cn. Pompey Magnus - (cos. 70, 55, 52) military genius, but political inconnue. Sided with Sulla and brought down many populares commanders.
2. M. Licinius Crassus (cos. 70, 55) – on the rise, his father was executed by Marius so he joined Sulla, but he is unpredictable save his greed (think a sane Ross Perot maybe back in 1980)
3. M. Tullius Cicero (cos. 63) – a rising novus homo, eager to prove himself in the courts and ingratiate himself to the old nobility
4. L. Sergius Catalina – bankrupt patrician who is desperate for power
III. The collapse of the Syrian Seleucid dynasty creates chaos in Asia. Foreign wars draw Lucullus and Pompey to the East where they conquer great territories and face down Tigran the Great and Mithridates VI. At the same time, Sertorius maintains a Popularis Res Publica in Spain that defies central authority until his assassination.
IV. Spartacus rebels in Capua, 73-71
1. Spartacus may have once been a Roman auxiliary in army, now a gladiator
2. S. breaks out of the training school in Capua w/80 friends and raided
3. Slaves begin to flock to him and join his force, Rs send a legion, he defeats it
4. After defeating a second army in 73, S marches N and defeats both consuls in his attempt to escape Italy into Gaul
5. His men insist on plundering Italy, so he turns back. A compact with pirates fails and he is trapped in Bruttium by Crassus
6. S escapes as far as Lucania, but Crassus catches his force and defeats it
7. Pompey arrives and sweeps up refugees to steal credit from Crassus.
8. After nearly coming to blows, Crassus and Pompey run for consulships of 70
9. Signif: A – risky-latifundia system, B – nearly toppled R from within, C - reform of slave management, D – do not believe Kubrick film
V. Rome in 60s
1. Literary era of Lucretius, Cicero, et al.
2. Politics remain open to 20 families in consulship
3. Cicero, a novus homo, breaks into the consulship of 63
4. Pirates plague Mediterranean until lex Gabinia
5. Revolution of Cataline foiled by Cicero (Sallust, Cicero as sources)
6. Beginning of Cato-Caesar rivalry
7. Julius elected Pontifex Maximus in 63 when Metellus Pius dies
VI. The 50’s the last decade of the republic as a free-ish representative gvt.
1. Senatorial ostracism bonds Julius, Pompey, Crassus in First Triumvirate
2. Julius as consul in 59 draws opposition of Bibulus and optimates
3. Julius governs Gauls and Illyricum,
4. Clodius forces Cicero into exile 58, P lets Cicero return 57
5. Allies of Triumvirate hold consulship until 54 when tide turns
6. Foes of Triumvirate gain consulships of 54-49 and P’s 5th wife lures him into the optimatis camp.
7. Senate deprives Julius of his command and he invades Italy (Jan 49).
Post Sulla era 70s and 60s
Sulla retires and the aftermath
1. P. Servilius and App. Claudius Pulcher coss. 79 under Sulla’s eye
2. Sulla retires to the country to hunt and indulge self
3. Q. Aemilius Lepidus and – consuls in 78, a near civil war
4. Metellius Pius and Pompey sent to Spain to destroy Sertorius
5. Sertorius defeats them, but is assassinated by his lieutenant Perpenna
6. Pompey restores rule in Spain, builds ties to local towns
7. Stage set for new leaders: Pompey, Catulus, Crassus, Lucullus
I. 70s BC an era of fading few old faces - 63
1. Q. Caecilius Metellius Pius – got his father’s exile lifted, a total optimatis ally of Sulla, made Pontifex Maximus (think Pat Robertson)
2. Q. Lutatius Catulus (cos. 78) conservative, but has integrity (think John McCain)
3. App. Claudius Pulcher (cos 79) a leading elder statesmen (Dick Lugar) whose offspring would dominate the next generation
4. L. Licinius Lucullus (cos. 74) strict but first-rate commander, often overlooked by historians. Not popular, but solid, almost another Manlius Torquatus
5. Q. Hortensius (cos. 69) - best lawyer in Rome. Antonin Scalia
6. Q. Sertorius – Marian rebel who occupied Spain for a decade (Sam Houston)
II. Rising new faces
1. Cn. Pompey Magnus - (cos. 70, 55, 52) military genius, but political inconnue. Sided with Sulla and brought down many populares commanders.
2. M. Licinius Crassus (cos. 70, 55) – on the rise, his father was executed by Marius so he joined Sulla, but he is unpredictable save his greed (think a sane Ross Perot maybe back in 1980)
3. M. Tullius Cicero (cos. 63) – a rising novus homo, eager to prove himself in the courts and ingratiate himself to the old nobility
4. L. Sergius Catalina – bankrupt patrician who is desperate for power
III. The collapse of the Syrian Seleucid dynasty creates chaos in Asia. Foreign wars draw Lucullus and Pompey to the East where they conquer great territories and face down Tigran the Great and Mithridates VI. At the same time, Sertorius maintains a Popularis Res Publica in Spain that defies central authority until his assassination.
IV. Spartacus rebels in Capua, 73-71
1. Spartacus may have once been a Roman auxiliary in army, now a gladiator
2. S. breaks out of the training school in Capua w/80 friends and raided
3. Slaves begin to flock to him and join his force, Rs send a legion, he defeats it
4. After defeating a second army in 73, S marches N and defeats both consuls in his attempt to escape Italy into Gaul
5. His men insist on plundering Italy, so he turns back. A compact with pirates fails and he is trapped in Bruttium by Crassus
6. S escapes as far as Lucania, but Crassus catches his force and defeats it
7. Pompey arrives and sweeps up refugees to steal credit from Crassus.
8. After nearly coming to blows, Crassus and Pompey run for consulships of 70
9. Signif: A – risky-latifundia system, B – nearly toppled R from within, C - reform of slave management, D – do not believe Kubrick film
V. Rome in 60s
1. Literary era of Lucretius, Cicero, et al.
2. Politics remain open to 20 families in consulship
3. Cicero, a novus homo, breaks into the consulship of 63
4. Pirates plague Mediterranean until lex Gabinia
5. Revolution of Cataline foiled by Cicero (Sallust, Cicero as sources)
6. Beginning of Cato-Caesar rivalry
7. Julius elected Pontifex Maximus in 63 when Metellus Pius dies
VI. The 50’s the last decade of the republic as a free-ish representative gvt.
1. Senatorial ostracism bonds Julius, Pompey, Crassus in First Triumvirate
2. Julius as consul in 59 draws opposition of Bibulus and optimates
3. Julius governs Gauls and Illyricum,
4. Clodius forces Cicero into exile 58, P lets Cicero return 57
5. Allies of Triumvirate hold consulship until 54 when tide turns
6. Foes of Triumvirate gain consulships of 54-49 and P’s 5th wife lures him into the optimatis camp.
7. Senate deprives Julius of his command and he invades Italy (Jan 49).
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