The First Two Punic Wars

The First Two Punic Wars: Rome vs. Carthage

First Punic War 264-41
Primary authors: Polybius, Livy, Appian, scattered others
Cause: both sides wanted Sicily
Leading combatants:
Carthaginians: a bunch of guys named Hannibal, and Hamilcar Barca
Romans: App. Claudius, C. Duilius, M. Atilius Regulus, C. Lutatius Catulus,
P. Claudius Pulcher

Romans overwhelmed Sicily quick, but lacked a fleet to take the Punic strongholds. Duilius invented the corvus and won Mylae in 260. In 256 Regulus invaded Africa and beat the Carthaginian army at Adys. The Spartan mercenary Xanthippus hired himself to Carthage and defeated Regulus at Tunes in 255, capturing him alive. Regulus’ real end followed immediately, despite a popular Roman legend. In 249 Claudius Pulcher lost the naval battle of Drepanum after an act of sacrilege, for which he was tried and fined. The war droned on in a stalemate with Hamilcar Barca using guerilla warfare on the Romans, and them unable to secure peace. Finally Lutatius Catulus defeated the last Carth fleet at Aegates Islands in 241 and forced them to accept terms.

Bellum Inexpiabile 241-38 (Never-ending War)
The mercenaries demanded wages, but Carthage insisted it had no cash. Mercenaries seized Corsica and Sardinia from the Carth garrisons. Soon the mercenaries led by Spendius and Matho attacked Carthage. (Read Flaubert’s Salambo). Finally Hamilcar Barca defeated them and brutally executed all of them in retaliation for what they had done to some Carth nobles. Meanwhile the islands remained in Roman hands, many in Carthage chafed.

The intermission – Carthage
Having saved the state from the mercenaries, Hamilcar Barca was in a position to pressure the gvt. Eventually the gvt sent Hamilcar to Spain to conquer a new land for Carth to recover the wealth lost in Sicily (ca. 235). Hamilcar conquered part of Spain when he was killed in battle (228). His son-in-law Hasdrubal Pulcher (the Handsome) took command and continued the conquest, more by diplomacy than warfare. He negotiated the Ebro River Pact with Rome ca. 226 limiting Carth’s northern sphere of influence. After 7 years he was assassinated by a man disgruntled over losing a woman to HP. Hannibal took over and conquered the rest of Spain south of the Ebro, then turned on a Roman ally, Saguntum. Rome had made an alliance with Saguntum, perhaps prior to the ERP, and may have failed to include Sag in the ERP. Hannibal and Rome disputed whether he had a right to attack Sag, but Hannibal attacked anyway. After a lengthy siege of 8 months he took Sag by storm. The townspeople burned some of the loot when they all killed themselves. Hannibal got a ruined city and a war with Rome.

The intermission – Rome
During the Bellum Inexpiabile Rome drove the mercs out of Corsica and Sardinia (Roman sources claim Carth asked them to do it). When Carth asked for the islands to return to Carth sovereignty, Rome threatened war. Rome kept the islands permanently. Without any foreign enemies to combat, Rome finally closed the Gates of Janus for the third time in 235, allowing T. Manlius Torquatus to be master of ceremonies. The Gates soon reopened due to Gallic and Illyrian threats. The Illyrians seized Roman merchants and this led to war (231) with Queen Teuta. Rome crushed her. Rome signed the Ebro River Pact with HP. Soon after the Gauls invaded and Rome faced a desperate war. Gauls killed the consul Atilius Regulus and desecrated his body in 225, but the following year beat them at the Battle of Telemon. The Roman counteroffensive under C. Flaminius crushed the Insubres in 223 and M. Claudius Marcellus killed the Insubrian king in hand to hand combat, winning the spolia opima in 222. The Romans then founded colonies in north Italy: Cremona and Placentia to help control the area.
Just when it looked peaceful, new trouble brewed in the Adriatic when the freebooter Demetrius of Pharos turned against Rome and had to be spanked. M. Livius Salinator and L. Aemilius Paullus drove him from power (to Macedon).
Then trouble arose with Hannibal over Saguntum. Saguntum sent a request for help, to which the Romans responded with ambassadors who urged Hannibal to desist w/o success. Rome sent a second embassy directly to Carthage. Q. Fabius Buteo urged Carth to turn over Hannibal to avoid war, and when that failed war came. Rome organized an army to go to Spain, but too late; Saguntum fell.

Second Punic War 218-02
Primary authors: Polybius, Livy, Appian, Plutarch, Cassius Dio, many others
Cause: Hannibal’s aggression (according to Rome)
Revenge for Rome taking the islands and being jerks (according to Carthage)
Leading combatants
Carths: Hannibal, brothers Hasdrubal & Mago, Hasdrubal Gisco, Maharbal
Romans: Ti. Sempronius Gracchus, P. Cornelius Scipio, Q. Fabius Maximus,
C. Flaminius, C. Terrentius Varro, L. Aemilius Paullus, M. Claudius Marcellus,
C. Claudius Nero, M. Livius Salinator and P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus.

Hannibal crossed the Alps in autumn 218, having evaded the Romans in Gaul led by Scipio. Scipio doubled back and was able to intercept Hannibal at the Trebbia River where he was wounded and defeated. Then Scipio and Longus engaged H at Ticinus and lost again, also in Dec. 218.
217 H defeated Flaminius and killed him at Trasimene; QFMC dictator
216 H defeats Varro and Paullus and kills LAP at Cannae; a few defections
215 Philip V allies with Carth, makes war on R
212 H gains Tarrentum, Marcellus retakes Syracuse, Roman reverse in Spain
209 QFMQ regains Tarrentum
208 both consuls, MCM and Quinctius KIA, Scipio in Spain, Illipia
207 Claudius Nero and Livius Salinator kill Hasdrubal at Metaurus River
205 Scipio consul, prepares to invade Africa; T of Phoenice ends F Mac War
203 Intrigue with Numidia, Syphax and Massinissa
202 Scipio beats H at Zama and forces an unconditional surrender

Terms: Carthage surrenders all territory outside Africa, yields some land to Numidia under Massinissa; fleet reduced to ca. 20 ships, becomes Roman ally and must contribute forces if asked, can not declare war w/o Roman permission, can not war another R ally, war indemnity to be paid over 50 years.

Aftermath: Rome exhausted by 16 years of warfare on Italian soil, but will be flooded with new wealth as Eastern markets open and Carth indemnity arrives.

Changes: Some of old aristocracy killed in war leaving vacancies for new, ambitious families. Within 25 years many wealthy equestrian families will bid for power and push their way to the top.
More important, Rome was now a Western Med Empire with many new peoples to rule and an open door to the East, drawing fire from the heirs to Alexander (Seleucid, Ptolemaic, Antigonid dynasties)
And the trials of SPW drew Romans together and forged a greater sense of national identity (already strong beforehand, now stronger).
Roman military ethos changes after Cannae to never surrender.